Gives the District of Columbia electors in presidential elections, no more than the least populous state.
Decisions and events within six years of ratification.
1957
President Eisenhower federalizes the Arkansas National Guard and sends the 101st Airborne to escort nine Black students into Central High School after the governor used the Guard to block them.
Source: National Archives
1958
No. States are bound by the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Constitution, and its decisions cannot be nullified by state officials.
Source: Opinion of the Court
1961
1962
Yes. Apportionment claims under the Equal Protection Clause can be decided by the courts.
Source: Opinion of the Court
1962
No. A state-composed school prayer violates the Establishment Clause, even if participation is voluntary.
Source: Opinion of the Court
1963
Yes. The right to counsel is fundamental and applies to the states.
Source: Opinion of the Court
1964
No. A public official must prove “actual malice”: knowledge that the statement was false, or reckless disregard for whether it was.
Source: Opinion of the Court
1964
Yes. Equal protection requires districts of substantially equal population: one person, one vote.
Source: Opinion of the Court